Vedanta: Concept of the Brahman (Shankara and Ramanuja)

Origins and Development of Vedanta

Vedanta, meaning “end of the Vedas,” is one of the most influential philosophical traditions of India. The name refers to both its textual basis in the concluding portions of the Vedas (the Upanishads) and its aim to reveal the ultimate meaning or culmination of Vedic knowledge. While Vedantic ideas appear in the ancient Upanishads, Vedanta as a systematic school of philosophy emerged around the early centuries CE.

The foundational texts of Vedanta are:

• The Upanishads, containing mystical and philosophical teachings
• The Bhagavad Gita, presenting spiritual guidance within the context of worldly duties
• The Brahma Sutras, a systematic exposition of Upanishadic teachings attributed to Badarayana

Different interpretations of these texts led to several sub-schools of Vedanta, with Advaita (non-dualism) founded by Shankara and Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism) founded by Ramanuja being among the most influential.

The Central Concept of Brahman

The concept of Brahman lies at the heart of all Vedanta philosophy. Brahman refers to the ultimate reality—the absolute, unchanging foundation of all existence. According to Vedanta, Brahman is:

• Infinite and unbounded
• Beyond time and space
• The source and substance of everything that exists
• Pure consciousness or awareness
• Complete and perfect in itself (purna)

The Upanishads describe Brahman as “satyam jnanam anantam brahma” (truth, knowledge, infinite is Brahman) and “satchidananda” (being, consciousness, bliss). However, Vedanta emphasizes that Brahman ultimately transcends all descriptions and categories. Any attributes ascribed to Brahman are at best pointers that help the human mind approach what is beyond conceptual understanding.

Different Vedantic thinkers interpret the nature of Brahman and its relationship to the world and individual souls in different ways, leading to the various schools of Vedanta philosophy.

Advaita Vedanta: Shankara’s Non-Dualism

Advaita (meaning “non-dual”) Vedanta, systematized by Adi Shankara in the 8th century CE, presents the most uncompromising non-dualistic interpretation of the Upanishads. According to Shankara:

The Nature of Brahman

For Shankara, Brahman is absolutely one without a second (ekam eva advitiyam). It is pure consciousness, without attributes or distinctions (nirguna). Any appearance of multiplicity or differentiation is ultimately unreal—an illusion (maya) caused by ignorance (avidya).

Shankara distinguishes between two levels of truth:

• Paramarthika satya (absolute reality): At this level, only Brahman exists
• Vyavaharika satya (empirical reality): The everyday world of multiplicity, which has a practical but not ultimate reality

Brahman and the World

Shankara famously uses the analogy of a rope mistaken for a snake in dim light to explain the relationship between Brahman and the world. Just as the snake is an illusion projected onto the rope due to darkness, the world of multiplicity is projected onto Brahman due to ignorance. When knowledge dawns, one realizes that only the rope (Brahman) exists, and the snake (world) was never real.

This doesn’t mean the world is completely non-existent (like a “square circle” would be). Rather, it has a provisional reality—it appears and functions but is not ultimately real. Shankara calls this “maya,” often translated as “illusion” but better understood as a principle of apparent manifestation.

Brahman and the Individual Self (Atman)

The most revolutionary aspect of Advaita Vedanta is its claim that the individual self (atman) is identical with Brahman. The famous Upanishadic statement “Tat Tvam Asi” (That Thou Art) expresses this identity directly. According to Shankara, the apparent difference between the individual self and Brahman is due solely to ignorance (avidya).

Just as space enclosed in a pot is not different from the universal space but appears limited due to the boundaries of the pot, the individual consciousness appears limited due to its association with the body and mind. When the pot breaks, the enclosed space naturally merges with universal space; similarly, when ignorance is removed, the individual recognizes its eternal identity with Brahman.

Liberation in Advaita

For Shankara, liberation (moksha) consists in directly recognizing one’s identity with Brahman. This is not a state to be achieved but a truth to be realized, as the self is always already Brahman. The removal of ignorance through knowledge (jnana) is sufficient for liberation, which can be attained in this lifetime (jivanmukti).

This knowledge is not mere intellectual understanding but direct realization that transforms one’s entire being. Once this realization occurs, the liberated person continues to live in the body (until death) but is no longer identified with it, knowing themselves to be the unchanging Brahman.

Vishishtadvaita: Ramanuja’s Qualified Non-Dualism

Ramanuja (11th-12th century CE) developed Vishishtadvaita Vedanta partly as a response to what he saw as the excessive abstractness and impersonality of Shankara’s Advaita. His system presents a “qualified non-dualism” that affirms the ultimate unity of reality while preserving the reality of multiplicity and difference.

The Nature of Brahman

For Ramanuja, Brahman is not attribute-less but possesses infinite auspicious qualities (saguna). Brahman is personal, identified with the deity Vishnu or Narayana, and possesses a divine form (divya rupa) of extraordinary beauty and perfection. This doesn’t mean Brahman is limited by qualities but rather that qualities express Brahman’s perfection.

Ramanuja argues that a completely attribute-less reality, as conceived by Shankara, would be indistinguishable from non-existence. Real consciousness must be consciousness of something and must belong to someone—it cannot exist as an abstract principle.

Brahman and the World

Ramanuja rejects the idea that the world is an illusion. For him, the world is real—a true manifestation of Brahman. He uses the analogy of the body and soul: just as the body is real and expresses the soul while being dependent on it, the world is real and expresses Brahman while being dependent on it.

Brahman contains the world and individual souls within itself as its modes or attributes (prakara). This relationship is described through the concept of “aprithak-siddhi”—inseparability despite distinction. The world and souls are inseparable from Brahman just as qualities are inseparable from a substance.

Brahman and the Individual Self

Unlike Shankara, Ramanuja holds that individual souls (jivas) are distinct from Brahman while still being fundamentally dependent on Brahman. The soul is not identical with Brahman but is a “mode” (prakara) or attribute of Brahman. Souls are countless in number, atomic in size, and eternal—they are neither created nor destroyed.

Ramanuja interprets “Tat Tvam Asi” to mean that the soul is to Brahman as the body is to the soul—dependent, inseparable, yet distinct. The relationship is one of inherence (aprithak-siddhi) rather than identity. He uses the grammatical interpretation of “That art Thou” as a qualificative statement rather than an equation.

Liberation in Vishishtadvaita

For Ramanuja, liberation is not the recognition of an already existing identity with Brahman but a state of perfect communion with God (Vishnu). The liberated soul retains its individuality but lives in perfect harmony with the divine will.

Liberation comes through devotion (bhakti) more than knowledge alone. While Ramanuja acknowledges the importance of knowledge, he emphasizes loving surrender (prapatti) to God as the surest path to liberation. The grace of God (prasada) plays a crucial role in salvation, making liberation a gift that is received rather than an achievement.

Philosophical Differences and Their Implications

The differences between Shankara and Ramanuja’s interpretations of Brahman have profound implications for understanding reality, consciousness, ethics, and spiritual practice:

On the Nature of Reality

• Shankara: Ultimate reality is non-dual and without qualities. Diversity is appearance, not reality.
• Ramanuja: Ultimate reality includes both unity and diversity in a complex relationship. Diversity is real, though dependent on underlying unity.

On the Status of the World

• Shankara: The world has a provisional reality (vyavaharika satya) but is ultimately unreal from the absolute perspective.
• Ramanuja: The world is genuinely real as a manifestation or body of Brahman, though completely dependent on Brahman.

On Individual Existence

• Shankara: Individual existence is ultimately illusory; only universal consciousness is real.
• Ramanuja: Individual existence is real and eternal, though not self-sufficient or independent.

On Spiritual Practice

• Shankara: Emphasizes knowledge (jnana) as the direct path to liberation, with other practices as preparatory.
• Ramanuja: Emphasizes devotion (bhakti) and surrender (prapatti) as the highest paths to liberation.

On Ethics and Social Life

• Shankara: Ethics belongs to the provisional realm; the liberated person transcends conventional morality while naturally doing goo